Last 100 year in
the development of the settlement structure have been characterised
by considerable dynamic of evolution of knowledge which reflects in
all areas of man's activity and leaves remarkable footprint also on
the human settlements especially on the towns.
The redevelopment of obsolete industrial sites has become an urgent
task for spatial planning not only in the accessing countries in the
central and eastern Europe, but in the leading industrial countries
all over the world. Last development in the economy and society brought
new types of the sites - so called brownfields. As defined by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), brownfield sites are abandoned,
idled or underused industrial and commercial properties where expansion
or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived contamination.
But the term "brownfield sites" is used for the sites, which
have been exposed to industrial activities (Istrochem in Bratislava)
and for the sites abandoned by railway uses (Bratislava - filiálka),
harbour sites (Bratislava - old winter harbour), mining areas or military
sites (Russian military sites in Slovakia) as well. The process of industrial
decline during last 10 years marked by gradual under utilisation of
industrial sites, declining competitiveness of industrial activities
and the process of privatisation lead to the fracturing of industrial
enterprises into separate companies and sub-companies, selling or leasing
property to new owners and users, who are not interested in continuing
industrial production in former location. It leads also to the establishment
of new spatial extensive commercial uses such as warehouses or haulers.
Reuse of brownfield sites, as the practice of many western countries
shows, includes housing, commercial, mixed-use and industrial projects,
creation of parks and recreational areas and restoration of wildlife
habitats and open space. It needs not only to adjust the planning methods
to their new needs but to derive new planning instruments, strategies
and procedures. The development of the brownfield sites has become one
of the major challenges in spatial planning. Reuse of the brown fields
in the regions and cities undergoing structural changes (as industrial
development transformed into the deindustrialization) is determined
by various barriers for the development, although they have a great
potential to shape the urban fabric. They often contain a mixture of
various buildings, infrastructures, sealed surfaces, fences, walls,
underground technical networks, industrial equipment and foundations,
and other industrial, transport or mining residues often of varying
toxicity. One of the most critical problems is soil contamination. Contamination
cleanup is expensive and depend on the quantity and quality of contamination,
kind of future uses, as some of them (housing, gardening, playgrounds)
are very sensitive. The analyses of the soil contamination and its precise
localisation is an important precondition for a decision about future
development on a certain brownfield site, preparing a development strategy
and comprehensive plan including appropriate requirements for the decontamination
and for their financial assessment.
Reuse of brownfield
sites brings huge environmental, social and economic profit -brings
new impulses for regional or urban development, new uses to urban areas,
where infrastructure already exists, increasing urban density allows
more efficient use of existing social, transport and technical infrastructure,
preserves undeveloped green space, protects it as a scare resource and
common good, decelerates urban sprawl, improves environmental conditions
in the former industrial spaces. Of course, the capacity or standards
of existing infrastructure may by insufficient for new developments
and existing surrounding urban fabric and uses set limits to their additional
improvement. On the other hand the brownfield sites are often located
in the attractive inner-city environment, which provides new impulses
for their reutilization.
This set of physical conditions, ownership situation, multiple claims
and interests and continuing industrial utilization on neighbouring
plots determine the planning process of brownfields.
The Slovak Republic is no exception in Europe concerning the issues
of the industrial regions and the centres that are under the process
of restructuring. All the key identified tendencies in the important
industrial centres in Europe can be traced in the Slovak Republic too.
However, the course of the tendencies has been determined by the specific
factors of geographical and political conditions and historical development.
Specific baseline of the background situation of the transformation
processes of the industrial regions and of the centres of the Slovak
Republic is possible to define by the following characteristics:
- rapid post-war
industrialisation,
- relatively recent
industrial and urbanisation processes,
- rich tradition
of specific industrial production,
- many specific
branches of industry with highly qualified labour,
- reduction of
state ownership, partly through privatisation and partly with the
input of foreign capital,
- high rate of
specific industrial production - e.g. arm production,
- existence of
relatively compact industrial complexes with low diversification of
economic basis,
- high dependency
of the regions on a few dominant industrial works,
- combination
of various initial points as the causes of transformation processes
at the same time,
- combination
of transformation processes in industry with the overall social transformation
processes in the SR and the EU accession processes,
- establishment
of the institutions of market economy and the freedom to start entrepreneurial
activities,
- one-way market
orientated production towards the states of the East block and the
Soviet Union before 1989,
- break down of
the former markets of the Council of Mutual Economic Aid,
- particular natural
and socio-political features of the SR territory - position in Europe,
highly valuable natural areas, precious historical and cultural heritage,
dependency of industry on import of raw materials,
- social disparities
became noticeable and their local separation within regions is visible,
- split of the
CSFR.
These factors determine
also specialised problems and cluster of problems of the industrial
regions and centres in the Slovak Republic.
Causes of the
Problem Situation in Industrial Regions and Centres
When analysing the problem situation of the industrial centres and regions
in the Slovak Republic we must first identify the factors initiating
the structural changes. Even if it is clear that need of the structural
changes follows from the structural changes of the society and its economic
basis, these changes can have various causes and thus also various external
symptoms, forms and consequences that requires various measures to overcome
the negative impacts of these dynamic changes.
As the
factors triggering the structural changes of the industrial regions
and centres, it is possible to include the following processes:
- structural changes
as a consequence of world-wide transformation from the industrial
society into the information society,
- structural changes
as a consequence of economic transformation of the Central and East
European Countries towards the market economy. At the same time it
is inevitable to take into account:
- particular features of the transformation process in relation to
the spatial impacts (e.g. geographical position, mechanisms of distribution,
access to the markets),
- problems and danger of uncontrolled processes (social, ecological
and spatial processes),
- structural changes
as a consequence of greening of the economy - ensuring sustainable
development as the background of structural changes (problem of nuclear
energy development). Structural changes in the Slovak Republic are
of various forms and have various effects, e.g.:
- change in domination
of economic sectors - tertiary and quarterly sectors in its economy
and in the society too,
- changes in the
way of production (from mass-production towards small-production,
flexibility of production, automation of industrial production, lowering
of energy and raw material utilisation in industrial production, greening
of industrial production,
- changes in relation
of labour and places of work,
- changes of the
attraction factors (pre-dominance of soft factors).
References
Kovác. B.;
Komrska, J. - editors: Recent Developments in Urban and Rural Theories
und New Trends in Spatial Planning, Central Euroepan Training Centre
in Spatial Planning, Bratislava/ Hannover/ Newcastle/Grenoble 2000.
Belcáková,
I.; Gál, P. - editors: Current Legislation and Standards of Spatial
Planning in Social Transformation and European Integration, Central
Euroepan Training Centre in Spatial Planning, Bratislava/ Hannover/
Newcastle/Grenoble 2000.
Dohnány, B.; Vodrážka, P. - editors: Tools, Methods
and Procedures in Areas with Specific Regime, Central Euroepan Training
Centre in Spatial Planning, Bratislava/ Hannover/ Newcastle/ Grenoble
2000.
Finka, M.: Tendenzen, Erwartungen und Hoffnungen bezueglich der Raumplanerausbildung
vor dem Hintergrund der Erweiterung der EU, In: Kol.: Anforderungen
zukuenftiger Raumplaner-ausbildung in Mittelosteuropa, Ergebnisse eines
internatioalen Planerforums in Bratislava, ARL Hannover 2001.
Lubomír
Jamecný, Dagmar Petrikova and Maroš Finka
Slovenská
Technická Univerzita (Slovak University of Technology), Bratislava
Faculty of Architecture
Healthy
Cities
Julie Gannon
Introduction
This article
is based on a paper prepared by The Futures Academy for the 2003 International
Healthy Cities Conference held in Belfast this year. It suggests that
what we need in order to build a healthy future for our cities is a
paradigm shift in the way we respond to the changing nature of the 21st
century city. The World Health Organisation (WHO) Healthy Cities Network
is one such response that aims to put health high on the agenda of European
decision-makers. This innovative initiative involves a network of European
cities that experiment with new ways of promoting health and improving
urban environments. This article is based on this concept of the 'healthy
city' that emerged as a result of the initiative. It aims to define
a healthy city by discussing the essential components that contribute
to the overall well being of a city. Furthermore, it outlines ways in
which we can achieve more healthy cities in the 21st century. In order
to fully appreciate the concept, the problems associated with unhealthy
cities will also be highlighted. To conclude, several scenarios and
policy measures will be presented based on the paper prepared by The
Futures Academy to promote a futures approach towards planning and development
for the future health of our cities.
Century of Cities
It is essential
to make the city of today a more desirable place in which to live and
work. This has become even more important in recent years owing to the
emergence of the 21st century as the century of cities (Landry, 2002).
With, for the first time, the majority of the world's population now
living in cities and urban areas, the city can determine the present
and future quality of peoples' lives. Effective urban planning and policy
making is therefore crucial to improve the health standards, working
conditions and quality of life for our urban populations. Owing to the
fundamental changes occurring in the city at every level, in addition
to the many pressures on our urban environments, old solutions to city
problems no longer work. More creative methods of thinking are necessary
for the city of the 21st century, in order to look afresh at urban possibilities.
Just as the economist Kevin Kelly (1997) stipulates that new rules are
necessary to govern the new, knowledge-driven network economy of the
21st century, new creative methods of urban planning and thinking are
required to encourage health within our continually evolving urban environments
and ever-expanding global cities.
What is a 'Healthy
City'?
The definition
proposed by the WHO suggests that a healthy city is one that seeks to
enhance the physical, mental, social and environmental well being of
the people who live and work within it. This is quite a broad definition,
however, and is open to various interpretations. As a result, a number
of additional definitions are offered here to convey the concept of
the healthy, sustainable city in a more meaningful way:
"A 'sustainable
city' is organised so as to enable all its citizens to meet their own
needs and to enhance their well being without damaging the natural world
or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the
future"
(Girardet,
1999, p.13).
"Sustainable
communities are defined as towns and cities that have taken steps to
remain healthy over the long term. Sustainable communities have a strong
sense of place. They have a vision that is embraced and actively promoted
by all of the key sectors of society, including businesses, disadvantaged
groups, environmentalists, civic associations, government agencies and
religious organisations. They are places that build on their assets
and dare to be innovative. These communities value healthy ecosystems,
use resources efficiently, and actively seek to retain and enhance a
locally based economy…Public debate in these communities is engaging,
inclusive and constructive. Unlike traditional community development
approaches, sustainability strategies emphasize: the whole community
(instead of just disadvantaged neighborhoods); ecosystem protection;
meaningful and broad-based citizen participation; and economic self-reliance"
(REC,
2003).
From these definitions,
it is clear that a healthy city is much more than a city that provides
adequate medical care. A healthy city involves many interdependent and
inter-related factors, only one of which is an effective healthcare
system. Healthy cities are those that provide nurturing environments
for all their citizens, environments that possess the following distinctive
qualities as recognised by the Dublin Healthy Cities Forum:
1. clean, safe,
physical environment;
2. stable, sustainable ecosystem;
3. strong, mutually supportive community;
4. public participation and control;
5. meets citizen needs;
6. variety of experiences;
7. diverse vital innovative economy;
8. links with the past;
9. a city form to support these characteristics;
10. accessible public health and care; and
11. high health status.
(www.dublinhealthycities.ie).
In summary, a healthy
city is one that nurtures its members. What builds a healthy city, also
builds community, safety, prosperity and families. As suggested by Duhl
and Hancock (2003), a healthy city is "rooted in the simple but
evolutionary idea that health is less about medical care than about
equitable access to such basic prerequisites of health as food, shelter,
transportation, clean air and water, education, physical safety and
meaningful jobs paying sufficient wages. This way of thinking expands
the idea that no person or family is an island; everyone's life is bound
up in the whole community".
Achieving a Healthy
City
Having defined a
healthy city, it is now important to explain how we can achieve a healthy,
sustainable city. Achieving a healthy city is a complex task that involves
bringing together a variety of actors, agents and interest groups with
varying backgrounds, aspirations, potentials and cultures (Landry, 2002).
There are a number of preconditions for a city to be truly creative,
innovative, sustainable and, in essence, healthy. The following is a
list of the preconditions to a healthy city, as presented by Landry
(2002):
1. personal qualities;
2. will and leadership;
3. human diversity and access to varied talent;
4. organisational culture;
5. local identity;
6. urban spaces and facilities; and
7. networking dynamics.
1. Personal Qualities
Cities have one crucial resource - their people. Intelligence, imagination,
creativity, motivation, commitment, open-mindedness and desire are some
of the vital qualities required in order to create and sustain a healthy
city. The citizen is an urban resource and will determine the ultimate
success of a city.
2. Will and Leadership
A city needs people who have the will to tackle its problems and take
on the city project as their own responsibility. Vision, energy, discipline,
focus, willingness to make decisions, initiative and courage are some
of the characteristics needed in order to lead the transformation of
a city. Leaders and citizens must create a shared vision of what their
city might be, must envision a path to this goal and must ultimately
lead the city to this goal.
3. Human Diversity
and Access to Varied Talent
In an environment where the skills, talents and cultural values of outsiders
and immigrants are understood and appreciated, rather than feared, new
ideas and opportunities will flourish and invigorate the city. Understanding
and a willingness to learn form others are important preconditions to
a healthy city.
4. Organisational
Culture
In order to create a healthy city, changes to organisational culture
may be necessary. Exposure to new ideas, shared learning, shared problem
solving and mentoring are several methods that can be used to foster
an organisational culture synonymous with a sustainable city. Devolution
of authority, the empowerment of individuals, teamwork and, in general,
a more open structure is the ideal organisational structure.
5. A Sense of
Local Identity and Culture
A strong identity is a precondition for establishing civic pride, community
spirit and care for the environment. Tolerance of other cultures and
identities is imperative if local culture is to be harnessed and established.
Consciousness of culture is an important asset and a driving force in
promoting a healthier, sustainable city. The cultural resources of a
city can be used to maximise its potential and create economic gain.
Because of the phenomenon of globalisation, cities have become more
similar to one another and, as a result, more detached from their cultural
heritage and historical connections. The "anytown" syndrome
currently prevails. In this increasingly international, globalised world,
culture plays a vital role in creating stability and a sense of localness,
perhaps now more than ever before. The possession of this characteristic
demonstrates that a city is unique, distinctive and has a real sense
of being. These characteristics constitute several of the qualities
of a healthy city. In order to create a healthy city, cultural resources
should play a pivotal role in urban planning, rather than be simply
seen "as a marginal addition to be considered once the important
planning questions like housing, transport and land use have been dealt
with" (Landry, 2002, p.7).
6. Urban Spaces
An essential element of a healthy city is public space, as both a physical
setting and also as an arena for public debate and the exchange of information.
The public realm is a vital characteristic of a healthy city as it helps
with the sharing of information and ideas thereby helping to expand
the horizons of the city's citizens. Meeting places and other public
spaces ranging form conference rooms to town squares, from parks to
shopping centres are also part of a city's public space.
7. Networking
Dynamics
The two aspects, according to Landry (2002), of networking include networking
within a city and networking internationally. Networking is vital to
ensure that a city is never disengaged from its regional hinterland.
It aids communication and the establishment of connections both inside
and outside the city. Networking helps to involve all players within
a city to ultimately work together in a more effective way.
These are a number
of the preconditions for achieving and sustaining a healthy city in
the 21st century. Furthermore, strong local action and commitment from
all citizens to the health and sustainable development of the city is
vital.
Indicators of
a Healthy City
Conventional indicators
of economic, social or environmental conditions do not easily translate
to the city level. Specific indicators are therefore necessary to describe
and measure urban health. Health indictors are "numeric measures
of health and well-being" (Tsouros & Farrington, 2003, p.67),
which convert data into relevant information, thus informing decision-makers
and policy formulators. This leads to rational and informed decisions,
benefiting the health of the city. Health indicators identify the aspects
of a city that contribute to or detract from the health of the population;
they can help find constructive solutions to urban problems; and they
provide information to make comparisons of urban health over time and
across different cities.
Measuring the health
of a city is a complex and challenging task. Because many inter-related
issues affect the health of a city and its citizens, several factors
must be examined in order to define, describe and measure urban health
including physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health. The following
table shows many of the indicators used by the WHO European Healthy
Cities Network to measure urban health:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Health:
- Mortality
- Main causes of death
- Low birth weight
Health services:
- Infrastructure (self-help groups, support programmes and health education)
- Output (immunisation rates)
- Resources (physicians and nurses)
- Access (financial and individual)
- City health education programmes
- Inhabitants per nurse; inhabitants per primary health care practitioner
- Percentage of population covered by health insurance
Physical environment:
- Pollution (air, water, household waste and land)
- Housing (living space, quality, provision and homelessness)
- Urban design (green space, pedestrianization and sports facilities)
- Transport (public transport - extent and range and cycle routes)
Socio-Economic
environment:
- Employment (overall and for disabled people and levels of poverty)
- Education and levels of literacy
- Social structures (family structures, abortion rates and children
in child care)
- Social disruption (crime and use of emergency services)
Public
services:
- Budget for health and social action
(Tsouros
& Farrington, 2003).
_______________________________________________________________________________
There are many additional
advantages in utilising health indicators. They can help forge local
links and strengthen inter-sectoral links within the city. Furthermore,
they can give the city a goal and an action plan with which to tackle
urban health problems. Indicators can ensure that the city is moving
in the right direction in relation to urban health. Difficulties may
arise, however, with the comparison of indicators across different countries
owing to interpretation differences. In spite of this drawback, the
information collected by health indicators is informative and insightful
and can act as an important instrument for cities to measure and ultimately
improve their health and well being.
Problems of an
'Unhealthy City'
To fully appreciate
the concept of a healthy city, it is valuable to investigate what constitutes
an 'unhealthy city'. There are numerous problems associated with unhealthy
or problem urban areas that are common to a number of cities across
the world. Poverty and unemployment can breed hopelessness, unfulfilled
expectations, and boredom, and can thus increase the chasm between the
middle classes and the employed working classes and those known as the
'socially excluded'. Violence, crime and vandalism can result in the
collapse of the established order, thus hindering the possibilities
to develop creative solutions to the city's problems. As Landry (2002)
explains: "Multiple deprivations create 'sink estates', where nearly
everybody and everything is pulled down." Other problems within
large urban areas involve the spread of fear, insecurity and xenophobia
within original communities when cities see the arrival of large populations
from other parts of the world. The rapid change in the composition of
communities can also leave the incomers feeling isolated, lonely and
excluded from their new community.
Furthermore, urban
areas have relatively high levels of tuberculosis, cancer, adult obesity,
poor mental health, tobacco smoking, drug abuse, alcohol consumption,
sexual transmitted diseases (including AIDS), crime, homicide, violence,
vandalism, and accidental injury and death (Tsouros & Farrington,
2003). The extent of urban health problems outlined in the above list
demonstrates the need to improve urban health and the need to create
healthy cities for the urban populations of the 21st century.
Future Thinking
the Healthy City
As discussed in
the paper prepared by The Futures Academy entitled "Imagineering
Cities: A Plea for More "Futures Thinking" in Urban Planning
and Development", there is an urgent need to transform our current
approaches to city planning and development if we are to promote quality
of life in our cities and enhance the health of all citizens, particularly
in urban distressed areas. It is becoming increasingly evident that
city structures and systems are changing, and there is little doubt
that the city of tomorrow will be fundamentally different from the city
of today. In response to this change, something new is required. The
paper prepared for the Belfast Conference describes how a community
or group might respond to these changes by adopting a "prospective
through scenarios approach" to learn how to help prepare for the
future of our urban environments by ultimately attempting to understand
what is going on in their environment, to appreciate the complex forces
shaping their locality, to think imaginatively through what this means
for them, and then demonstrate a readiness to act upon this new knowledge.
In this way, policies or plans based on this type of approach can help
bring desired and likely future circumstances in closer alignment.
A "simulation"
study was carried out to demonstrate how this process might be carried
out and what might result. The output of this process was the development
of three alternative future scenarios presented here.
"Cupidity"
This scenario
is characterised by an overindulgent city. It is the year 2020 and the
city's appetite has grown to engulf all in its path, physically and
socio-economically. Traditional city lifestyles, identities and ideals
have been abandoned in favour of a fast-paced, debaucherous way of life.
Economic prosperity
has determined the primary functions of the city in this centralised
city state. Globalisation has taken rule in the city, which consequently
embodies the "anytown" prototype. Social issues are not a
priority for the narcissistic middle-class society that reign, as they
can afford not to pay attention to such matters. Social services are
costly but affordable to this wealthy young business class. An ever-widening
gap between the rich and poor is emerging however, and social exclusion
is a matter of urgent concern within the city that is not being addressed.
The city is being pillaged by its citizens, who are, as a result, treading
on thin ice.
The city generally
represents an unhealthy environment in which to live and work. Business
and financial institutions have set seed in the city centre and skyscrapers
overshadow the skyline. Urban decay has rooted and spread to the inner-city
suburbs. Suburbia is the new found way of life for those who can afford
it. A "healthy life" can now be purchased from the privatised
healthcare sector but for how long will the current ethic of "work
hard, play hard" prevail? The city is choking as its carrying capacity
has long been surpassed. Will the wealthy be able to sustain their indulgent
lifestyles at the expense of the health of the urban environment?
"Sudden
Times"
This scenario
is representative of a fragile city in the year 2020. Economically,
there has been an unexpected downturn in the global markets, which has
had immediate consequences for cities and city life.
Priorities have
shifted from those concerned with luxuries to those concerned with basic
necessities. Job security is a number one priority on the political
agenda within the city, whereas issues such as healthcare, education
and the environment are left on the backburner.
It is a dangerous
and uncertain time for the city as sustainability issues are recoiled
and government revenue is pumped solely into the economy. An air of
apprehension sweeps through the city and a sense of nausea prevails.
The city embodies an almost unconscious entity awaiting a breath of
new life. Health seems a far cry from the city as scepticism emerges.
Time will soon
tell the story of the city. Nothing is certain within this urban environment,
as the future of the healthy city remains to be told.
"Cocoon"
It is the year
2020 and a metamorphosis has occurred in the city. Governing structures
have devolved enabling local democracy to rule the roost. The citizens
of the city play the most prominent role in shaping the future of their
living environments through active participation in political and social
affairs.
Cities in this
scenario are influenced primarily by local agendas and consequently,
represent healthy but somewhat vulnerable urban economic environments.
Social issues dominate the political agenda and a civic society prevails.
Childcare, healthcare, care for the elderly and education are prioritised
as issues demanding attention, which have subsequently been met. Furthermore,
urban environmental services such as public transport, waste management
and social housing have all been adequately addressed, owing in particular
to the revenue created as a result of the implementation of the "polluter
pays principle" in all local policy measures. Quality of life within
the city is high, as the stressful, fast-paced ways of the early 21st
century have been replaced with a slow-paced lifestyle.
The city, however,
is not economically buoyant. Times are uncertain, as multi-national
interests have abandoned the city in search of more opportunistic city
environments. The citizens of the city, therefore, must ensure the self-sufficiency
of the city is sustained for this healthy, slow-paced city to survive.
Based on the scenarios
developed, a series of policy measures were formulated. This step in
the process ensures that robust policy measures are formulated to withstand
future uncertainty and lead to the achievement of the desired future,
the healthy city. Some of the measures suggested included:
- promoting an
awareness of the need for sustainability within our urban environments
through radical initiatives in education at all levels;
- encouraging "bottom-up"
governance through local empowerment and active participation in the
decision-making process;
- encouraging effective
leadership and governance;
- securing and
sustaining employment opportunities;
- reducing poverty
and social exclusion;
- improving housing
access, condition and affordability;
- fostering a healthier
population;
- reducing crime
and the fear of crime;
- providing good
access to local services;
- ensuring adequate
provision of social, civic and recreational facilities;
- introducing innovative
fiscal measures to promote sustainable development;
- placing greater
emphasis on the implementation and enforcement of policy; and
- establishing
a set of parameters or criteria by which urban planning policies and
development decisions are made against fundamental principles such
as irreversibility, precaution, subsidiarity and empowerment.
Conclusion
In this article,
it is argued that cities are moving centre-stage and will become the
dominant human habitat of the future. Urban environments today represent
"complex adaptive systems", faced with testing challenges
which must be addressed with confidence in an attempt to promote quality
of life and enhance the health of all citizens. Building a healthy city,
after all, requires holistic planning and innovative thinking involving
everyone who can make a difference, not just those employed within the
healthcare profession. Adopting a futures approach to plan for the future
of the healthy city encourages this idea as it places people, the city's
ultimate resource, at the top of the agenda by establishing a platform
for their involvement and participation in shaping the future of their
city. As expressed by Ellyard:
"The future
is not a probable place we are being taken to, but a preferred place
we are creating. The tracks to it are not found and followed, but made
by laying and constructing a trail."
References
Duhl, L. & Hancock,
T. (2003): Healthy Cities, Healthy Children.
http://www.unicef.org/pon97/indust1.htm
Ellyard, P. quoted
in Share the Vision.
http://www.ci.diamond-bar.ca.us/share.htm
Girardet, H. (1999)
Creating Sustainable Cities - Schumacher Briefing No.2, Green Books,
Devon.
Kelly, K. (1997)
New Rules for the New Economy: Twelve Dependable Principles for Thriving
in a Turbulent World, Wired, September.
Landry, C. (2002)
The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators, 4th ed., Earthscan
Publications Ltd., UK & USA.
Ratcliffe, J. &
Gannon, J. (2003): Imagineering the Healthy City: Using A "Prospective"
Process Through Scenario Thinking to Promote the Quality of Life in
Cities, a paper prepared for the 2003 International Healthy Cities Conference,
Belfast.
Ratcliffe, J. &
Sirr, L. (2003): Imagineering Cities: A plea for more "futures
thinking" in urban planning and development, a paper prepared for
the LUDA Newsletter.
REC (2003): Regional
Environmental Centre for Central and Eastern Europe.
http://www.rec.org/REC/programs/sustainablecities/what.html.
Tsouros, A. D. &
Farrington, J. L. (eds.) (2003) WHO Healthy Cities in Europe: a compilation
of papers on progress and achievements, WHO Regional office for Europe,
Denmark.
http://www.dublinhealthycities.ie/pages/background.htm
Julie Gannon,
The Futures Academy, Dublin Institute of Technology